Remote sensing and Satellite imaging

Remote sensing
Is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon  without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation. Remote sensing Is used in numerous fields including geography land surveying and most Earth science disciplines for e.g. hydrology, ecology, oceanography, glaciology and geology (detecting ores)

Satellite imaging
or space borne photography are images  of earth or other planets collected by imaging satellites. Images can be in visible colors and in other spectra. There are also elevation or topographical maps usually made by radar images. Interpretation and analysis of satellite imaging is conducted using specialized remote sensing applications
The em waves consist of both electric and magnetic field waves. These waves oscillate in perpendicular planes with respect to each other and are in phase.
The 7 types of em waves are radio,microwave , infrared, visible light, ultraviolet,x-rays,gamma rays.
Metals reflect radio waves.
Upon reflection if the collision is inelastic the speed of the em wave changes. Since the speed is dependant upon the frequency, the frequency tuning is necessary.
The energy density is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric or magnetic field The amplitude changes with respect to the material through which it is propagating. There may be need of amplitude tuning.
Factors affecting the propagation of em waves
Reflection
Refraction
Scattering
Dispersion
Interference
Height of antenna
Polarization
Magnetic field 

HTML Goodies

HTML offers a whole new set of goodies for your website...
Let me tell you more about this ...

The new HTML elements come with inbuilt validation.

The bootstrap offers wide range of latest templates to choose from.

The jumbotron indicates a big box for calling extra attention to some special content or information.A jumbotron is displayed as a grey box with rounded corners. It also enlarges the font sizes of the text inside it.

Example

Hello, world!

This is a simple hero unit, a simple jumbotron-style component for calling extra attention to featured content or information.

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It uses utility classes for typography and spacing to space content out within the larger container.

Learn more

A progress bar can be used to show a user how far along he/she is in a process.

A progress bar with a label looks like this:

70%

Bootstrap provides several types of progress bars including animated one.

If you have a web site with lots of pages, you may wish to add some sort of pagination to each page. 

A basic pagination in Bootstrap looks like this:

• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5

Pager is also a form of pagination that provides previous and next buttons (links).

The Carousel plugin is a component for cycling through elements, like a carousel (slideshow).

The Modal plugin is a dialog box/popup window that is displayed on top of the current page:

The Popover plugin is similar to tooltips; it is a pop-up box that appears when the user clicks on an element. The difference is that the popover can contain much more content.

 

The Scrollspy plugin is used to automatically update links in a navigation list based on scroll position.

Wish you a great time constructing your website ...

Green House Effect

The greenhouse effect

The exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms the Earth is often referred to as the greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in much the same way.

Incoming UV radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is absorbed by the plants and hard surfaces inside. Weaker IR radiation, however, has difficulty passing through the glass walls and is trapped inside, thus warming the greenhouse. This effect lets tropical plants thrive inside a greenhouse, even during a cold winter.

A similar phenomenon takes place in a car parked outside on a cold, sunny day. Incoming solar radiation warms the car's interior, but outgoing thermal radiation is trapped inside the car's closed windows.

Water vapor, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O)  and other greenhouse gases act like a blanket, absorbing IR radiation and preventing it from escaping into outer space. The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth's atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming.

The ozone layer is a belt of the naturally occurring gas "ozone." 

Today, there is widespread concern that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioration allows large amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth, which can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans and harm animals as well.

...It is time to reduce pollution to reduce the green house effect...
Measures to reduce poisonous gases:
Water Vapor: Dehumidifiers
CO2:Planting trees
N2O:filters in traffic emission
Methane:reduce oil spills
Chloroflorocarbons:reduce CFC in Refrigerator and air coolers

Solar power bank

Solar batteries can be a great way to keep you charged, your recreational vehicles moving, and your devices powered. But you don’t want to send energy collected from your solar panels straight to your device. Instead, you need to direct that energy into a battery bank to allow for storage and use. But how do these solar battery banks work?

First, all solar battery and energy systems should be customized to fit your specific needs. Each part of the system is dependent on each other and dependent on your application. The battery bank is going to be most dependent on the load and the time the load is used. Our solar calculator can be a great tool to help you figure out the number of needed solar panels and batteries in your bank to run your specific application.

Now, let’s assume you’ve got your solar panels set up. The next step is to add a solar controller. Why is this important to a battery bank? The solar charge controller helps prevent the batteries in your bank from overcharging and prolongs the life of your batteries.

Next, it’s time to set up the battery bank. A battery bank is simply the result of joining two or more batteries together for a single application. In theory, you can connect as many batteries together as you want, but when you start to construct a tangled mess of batteries and cables, it can quickly get confusing. And that confusion can turn dangerous. Make sure you keep in mind the requirements for your application and stick to them. And for safety, avoid mixing and matching batteries of different sizes that you had in your garage or hand-me-downs from Uncle Bob. Consistency in your battery size will keep your solar battery bank safe and running smoothly.

Depending on the number of batteries you need in your bank, you may find it helpful to draw a simple diagram first of how the batteries will be connected to each other with input and output.

There are two ways to successfully connect two or more batteries to each other to form the battery bank for your solar system. These are a series join or a parallel join. We’ve created a simple tutorial video which will help you better understand these two methods for joining batteries to form your bank. Take a look.

Finally, to be able to use the energy stored in the battery bank you’ve set up, you’ll need to connect it to an inverter. This allows you to plug in your application and get moving.

For those of you who don’t deal with this every day, we know it can be confusing trying to determine the exact needs to create a solar-powered battery bank system for your application. Don’t fret, give us a call. We can help you determine the number of solar panels and batteries you’ll need, along with the best configuration for creating your system.

Wind Turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electricity. The blades of a wind turbine turn between 13 and 20 revolutions per minute, depending on their technology, at a constant or variable velocity, where the velocity of the rotor varies in relation to the velocity of the wind in order to reach a greater efficiency.

The functioning of a wind turbine can be explained in function of the following phases:

• Automatic orientation

  The wind turbine is automatically oriented to take maximum advantage of the kinetic energy of the wind, from the data registered by the vane and anemometer that are installed at the top. The nacelle turns around a crown located at the end of the tower.

• Turning of the blades

  The wind makes the blades turn, which start to move with wind speeds of around 3.5 m/s and provide maximum power with a wind speed 11 m/s. With very strong winds (25 m/s), the blades are feathered and the wind turbine slows down in order to prevent excessive voltages.

• Gearbox

  The rotor (unit of three blades set in the hub) turns a slow axis that is connected to a gear box that lifts the turning velocity from 13 to 1,500 revolutions per minute.

• Generation

  The gearbox transfers its energy through a fast axis that is connected to the generator, which produces the electricity.

• Evacuation

  The energy generated runs through the inside of the tower to the base. From there, the energy runs over an underground line to the substation, where its voltage is raised in order to inject it into the electrical grid and distribute it to the points of consumption.

• Monitoring

  All of the critical functions of the wind turbine are monitored and supervised from the substation and the control center in order to detect and resolve any incidents.

Credit card

A credit card is a thin plastic card, usually 3-1/8 inches by 2-1/8 inches in size, that contains identification information such as a signature or picture, and authorizes the person named on it to charge purchases or services to his account -- charges for which he will be billed periodically. Today, the information on the card is read by automated teller machines (ATMs), store readers, and bank and Internet computers.

A credit card can provide convenience and allow you to make purchases with nearly a month to pay for them before finance charges kick in.

The bank credit-card system. Under this plan, the bank credits the account of the merchant as sales slips are received (this means merchants are paid quickly -- something they love!) and assembles charges to be billed to the cardholder at the end of the billing period. The cardholder, in turn, pays the bank either the entire balance or in monthly installments with interest (sometimes called carrying charges).

In order to offer expanded services, such as meals and lodging, many smaller banks that earlier offered credit cards on a local or regional basis formed relationships with large national or international banks.

Mobile Banking

Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution that allows its customers to conduct financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. Unlike the related internet banking it uses software, usually called an app, provided by the financial institution for the purpose. Mobile banking is usually available on a 24-hour basis. Some financial institutions have restrictions on which accounts may be accessed through mobile banking, as well as a limit on the amount that can be transacted.

Transactions through mobile banking may include obtaining account balances and lists of latest transactions, electronic bill payments, and funds transfers between a customer's or another's accounts. Some apps also enable copies of statements to be downloaded and sometimes printed at the customer's premises; and some banks charge a fee for mailing hardcopies of bank statements.

From the bank's point of view, mobile banking reduces the cost of handling transactions by reducing the need for customers to visit a bank branch for non-cash withdrawal and deposit transactions. Mobile banking does not handle transactions involving cash, and a customer needs to visit an ATM or bank branch for cash withdrawals or deposits. Many apps now have a remote deposit option; using the device's camera to digitally transmit cheques to their financial institution.

You can also use your mobile as a credit/debit card for payments at different merchant outlets. You can shop at these outlets if they are part of the service provider's network.

Vending machine

A vending machine is an, "electronic machine used to disperse a product to a consumer after a certain amount of money has been put into the machine," as defined by Business Dictionary. 
Step 1
Load the vending machine. Prior to operation, a vending machine must be stocked with the products it will dispense to consumers. These products are often supplied by the vending machine supplier, who buys them wholesale and then sells the product at a retail price. Vending machines typically have specialized keys that a small business owner can use to access the inside. Fill each display with product and make sure the products do not become inter-tangled with the vending mechanism.
Step 2
Test the vending machine. To ensure the machine is properly loaded and ready to dispense, select one or several products and use both coin and paper money to pay for the items. Vending machines measure coins and read paper money. Each machine differs slightly, but in general, it identifies each coin with an electromagnetic field which measures thickness and diameter. Dollar bills are scanned with a laser, which transmits to a small computer that deciphers each denomination. It then calculates a balance and allows the consumer to make a choice of product. When the consumer chooses, electronic signals are relayed to a motor through an electronic console board which turns the spiral dispenser of the selected product. The machine then deducts from the balance the amount of the purchase.
Step 3
Collect the money. Vending machine providers generally do not allow a small business owner access to the money collection vault and reserve access to approved vending machine mechanics. These individuals visit on a weekly, biweekly or monthly basis. The vending machine mechanic inspects the inside and outside of the machine for damage and regular maintenance. He then opens the money collection area and reconciles the money with the transaction log. Once accounted, the mechanic splits the proceeds from the sales with the business owner.

ATM

The automatic teller machine was invented by john shepherd-Barron in year of 1960.

Features of Automatic Teller Machine:

• Transfer funds between linked bank accounts
• Receive account balance
• Prints recent transactions list
• Change your pin
• Deposit your cash
• Prepaid mobile recharge
• Bill payments
• Cash withdrawal
• Perform a range of feature in your foreign language.

Input Devices:

•       Card reader
•       Keypad

Output Devices:

• Speaker
• Display Screen
• Receipt Printer
• Cash Dispensor
• Cash Depositor

The automatic teller machine (ATM) is an automatic banking machine (ABM) which allows customer to complete basic transactions without any help of bank representatives. There are two types of automatic teller machines (ATMs). The basic one allows the customer to only draw cash and receive a report of the account balance. Another one is a more complex machine which accepts the deposit, provides credit card payment facilities and reports account information.

It is an electronic device which is used by only bank customers to process account transactions. The users access their account through special type of plastic card that is encoded with user information on a magnetic strip. The strip contains an identification code that is transmitted to the bank’s central computer by modem. The users insert the card into ATMs to access the account and process their account transactions. 

The cash dispenser is a heart of the ATM. This is a central system of the ATM machine from where the required money is obtained. From this portion the user can collect the money. The duty of the cash dispenser is to count each bill and dispense the required amount. 

A complete record of each transaction is kept by the ATM machine with help of an RTC device.

 . 

CPU

CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. CPU or simply a processor is the most important part of the computer system.

A Typical CPU Consists Of 2 Parts:

• Control Unit
• Logic Unit
• Control Unit: This part of CPU is used to manage the operation of the CPU. It commands the various computer components to react according to the program’s instruction.
•  Logic Unit: Logic unit is also referred as Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The ALU is a digital electronic circuit placed inside the CPU. 

Register: A register is a very small place which is used to hold data of the processor. A register is used to store information such as instruction, storage address and any kind of data like bit sequence or any characters etc. 

L1 and L2 Cache Memory: Cache Memory is a type of memory which is placed in the processor’s chip or may be placed separately connected by a bus. The use of Cache Memory is to store program instructions which are again and again used by software for an operation. 

Working of CPU

Whenever a data or some instruction or program is requested by the user, the CPU draws it from the RAM (Random Access Memory) and might some other hardware for the purpose.

Now before sending the information back to the RAM, the CPU reads the information associated with the task given to it. After reading the information, the CPU starts its calculation and transporting the data.

Before the data is further executed, it has to travel through the System BUS. A bus in the computer is a communication system that is used to transfer the data among all the components of the computer.

The duty of the CPU is to make sure that the data is processed and is on the system bus. The CPU manages data to make it in a correct order while arranging the data on the system bus. Thus, the action requested by the user is done and the user gets the processed and calculated information. Now when the data is processed, the CPU is required to store it in the system’s memory.

GMR

In spin valve GMR, two magnetic layers are separated by a thin (~3 nm) non-magnetic (insulating) layer. It is possible to measure and adjust the strength of magnetism between these layers.

The Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) is the large change in the electrical resistance which is induced by the application of a magnetic field to thin films composed of alternating ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic layers. This change in resistance, in general a reduction, is related to the field-induced alignment of the magnetizations of the magnetic layers. In the first experiments, the film was composed of layers of Fe (ferromagnetic) and Cr (nonmagnetic) with typical thicknesses of a few nm and the current was in the plane of the film. GMR effects can also be obtained with the current perpendicular to the layers. The origin of the GMR is the dependence of the electrical conduction in ferromagnetic materials on the spin state of the carriers (electrons).

A spin valve structure, in its simplest form shown in Figure 5 a, consists of a magnetically soft layer separated by a nonmagnetic layer from a second magnetic layer which has its magnetization pinned by an exchange biasing interaction with an antiferromagnetic (FeMn) or ferrimagnetic layer. The operation of the spin valve can be understood from the magnetization and magnetoresistance curves shown in Figure 5 b. One of the permalloy layers has its magnetization pinned by the FeMn in the negative direction. When the magnetic field is increased from negative to positive values, the magnetization of the free layer reverses in a small field range close to H=0, whereas the magnetization of the pinned layer remains fixed in the negative direction. Consequently, the resistance increases steeply in this small field range. Magnetic multilayers of the spin valve type are used in most applications of GMR, in particular the read heads of hard discs,

Uses:

Spin-valve sensors

Hard disk drives

Magnetic RAM

biosensors

Magnetoresistive insulators for contactless signal transmission between two electrically isolated parts of electrical circuits were first demonstrated in 1997 as an alternative to opto-isolators. A Wheatstone bridge of four identical GMR devices is insensitive to a uniform magnetic field and reacts only when the field directions are antiparallel in the neighboring arms of the bridge. 

Digital osciloscope

A digital oscilloscope is a complex electronic device composed of various software and electronic hardware modules that work together to capture, process, display and store data that represents the signals of interest of an operator.

Digital oscilloscopes are often referred to as digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) or digital sampling oscilloscopes (DSO).

In its simplest form, a digital oscilloscope features six elements — the analog vertical input amplifiers, analog-to-digital converter and a digital waveform memory, a time base which features a triggering and clock drive, the circuits for waveform display and reconstruction, the LED or LCD display, and the power supply.

Digital oscilloscopes periodically samples a time varying analog signal and stores in the waveform memory the signal’s values in correlation with time.

Using an internal clock, digital oscilloscopes chops input signals into separate time points. The instantaneous amplitude values are then quantized by the oscilloscope at those points. The resulting digital representations are then stored in a digital memory.

At a predetermined clock rate, the display is regenerated from the device’s memory and is consequently viewed as connected dots or a series of dots. Digital Oscilloscopes provides powerful features on how they trigger the digitized data from its memory.

Some of the advantages of a digital oscilloscope over analog oscilloscope include the scope’s ability to store digital data for later viewing, upload to a computer, generate a hard copy or store on a diskette and its capacity to instantly make measurements on the digital data.

After a trigger event, digital oscilloscopes can be made to display the waveforms as compared to an analog oscilloscope that needs to be triggered first before it starts a trace.

A digital oscilloscope also has the ability to examine digitized information stored in its memory and make automatic measurements based on the selected parameters of the user, such as voltage excursion, frequency and rise times.

It can also display similar captured data in various ways. This capability is attributed to the presence of more captured data than what shown on the screen. It also offers the flexibility of providing a vast array of storage, processing and display options, such as graphics and one-quarter and one-half screen displays and multiple step processing programs.

A digital oscilloscope is ideal for displaying intricate signal waveforms where calculations and measurements on specific portions of the waveforms must be made to provide numerical and waveform output displays which reflects the chosen parameters of the waveforms.

The two general categories of digital oscilloscopes are single shot oscilloscopes and random interleave or equivalent time sampling oscilloscopes.

Single shot oscilloscope starts real-time sampling of an event after a trigger condition has been satisfied. The speed of the analog-to-digital converter determines the limitations of the sampling speed of single shot oscilloscopes. The size of the device’s acquisition memory, which receives the output from the converter, limits the time on which a single event can be sampled.

Meanwhile, random interleave oscilloscope or equivalent time sampling oscilloscope relies on sampling repetitive events at different points over certain periods of time.